The Industrial Revolution

• The industrial revolution was characterized by a switch from craft work by agrarian communities to manufacturing using machinery by urban industry
• The industrial sector came to dominate the economy over the agricultural sector for the first time since the beginning of civilization
• After industrial revolution technological innovation was rapid, this influenced: Incomes, employment, skills, social relations, consumption possibilities (the market of available goods)

England

• England industrialized over the 18th and 19th centuries, before other countries:
• Removal of feudal and royal restrictions on manufacturing
• A shortage of wood led to the use of coal as a fuel
• Coal was concentrated enough as a power source to be a source of power for a mechanical engine (steam), used in printing, dying, and the making of iron
• An abundance of natural resources
• The development of cast iron
• These explanations have been challenged, for example, take the argument for an abundance of natural resources::
• England had coal, iron ore and land suited to raising sheep for wool
• Nations that lacked natural resources took longer to industrialize (.g. Japan, Switzerland)
• However, Britain imported half its iron ore from Sweden, made all its steel from imported ore
• UK imported all of its cotton from colonies, other European nations obtained cotton at similar prices from Middle East, Britain’s first supplier
• Even the wood shortage explanation has been challenged:
• Increasing population reduced wood supply, led to use of coal
• Still, wind and water power were used in more industries than steam for the majority of the industrial revolution
• Other parts of Europe had coal deposits and wood shortages, they did not develop British technologies
• The revolution started in the dominant industry of the time, textiles, using wool and later cotton brought back from the American colonies
• The combination of ample supply of materials and increasing demand for clothing led to the need to increase production, and the machinery that had been used in isolated places now had a fertile place to grow
• Machines initially multiplied the actions of individual hands, later artificial power was added to the process increasing speed and production
• Note that water power was used in many places before steam power replaced it, and even then the replacement was gradual and piecemeal
• Both labour and capital were changed in this period, labour was liberated from the fields, and capital was made available from the profits made through 17^th century mercantilism
• There is a cascade effect in improvements, an increase in demand for textiles led to the development of machinery and chemicals for processing, these led to an increase in the demand for coal, and this to improvements in transportation and mining
• The dependence on coal led to a concentration of industry in areas near coalfields
• Agricultural improvements also contributed to the economy, with changes in breeding, crop rotation and the use of machines such as harvesters
• Also important, the increase in mechanized agriculture led to a diversion of labour to the cities and industry
• By 1750 spike in rate of innovations, as measured by the increase in patents
• Patents first established in Italy, England was one of the first countries to have an extensive patent system by 16^th century
• The limited protection offered by patents encouraged innovation
• England Anglican; Protestant, Jewish, Quaker and Puritan minorities often went into industry as they were barred from civil service, military, and some schools

Changes in Labour

• Machine filled factories were a late addition to the industrial revolution, first there were changes in labour
• “Putting out System”, laborers worked in their homes for industrialists
• Craftsmen who would do many tasks were replaced with workers who do one task each, and these were ripe for replacement by machines
• Clashes between management & workers over mechanization, to management machines were integral to productivity & efficiency, workers saw them as a barrier to solidarity & personal liberty
• As machines could frequently be operated by women & immigrant labor (cheaper), workers frequently resisted both in workplace
• The dynamic of capitalism, capitalists own means of production, take the profit from work done by machinery
• Work was perceived as something done without pride or skill, & that time was sold to an employer, rather than enjoying a vocation
• Machines deprived the worker of ownership & control, & gave management the ability to determine the pace of work
• Some employers replaced day wages with hourly wages (only demanding the hours needed), & others introduced wages “by the piece” to encourage productivity
• Workers made various demands to counter this: they resisted over productivity, they demanded overtime pay & a cap on working hours