F. de Saussaure:

• Swiss linguist and expert in historical linguistics whose lectures laid the foundations for synchronic linguistics (1857-1913). Drawing from the original definition proposed by [Saussure] (1857-1913), a sign has two parts: As a signifier (i.e. it will have a form that a person can see, touch, smell, and/or hear), and as the signified (i.e. it will represent an idea or mental construct of a thing rather than the thing itself)
• Significance:
  • Saussaure’s theory became the ground point of analysis for signs and codes.
• Example:
  • I misplace the Tim Hortons cup. I ask a friend, “Where’s my Tim Hortons cup?” it triggers a SIGNIFIED representation of the cup in my friend’s mind. He says, “I think it is over there.” He points to the cup, that is the SIGNIFIER (the cup’s physical representation), “Ahhh, that’s where I put it!”

Saussure's Model

C.S. Pierce:

• Focused on all signs, not just written/spoken.
• For Pierce, a sign was anything that can create meaning.
• Significance: Further enhanced Saussaure’s theory/model.
• Index: Direct physical relation to referent (referent = the thing it refers to).
  • Significance: The first stage of Pierce’s model/theory.
  • Example: pointing; weathervane – a weathervane moves, it indicates the winds direction
  • Index is the physical presence of the sign. For example, a Tim Horton’s is the physical representation of the sign.
• Icon: A sign that illustrates a concept or message without the use of words. The sign looks like what it refers to.
  • Examples: Bathroom signs, a whale on a weathervane.
• Symbol: Is a conventional sign based solely on social conventions.
  • Examples: letters of the alphabet.

Diachronic: The development of a language over a period of time. It is the unfolding of an expression over time to sequence the production of a meaningful utterance. (Example: When a person is speaking/reading, words come out 1 at a time.)

Syntagm: A syntactic string of words that forms a part of some larger syntactic unit. **Essentially, any statement is a Syntagm.

Synchronic: As opposed to diachronic, a synchronic approach looks at language at a particular point in time. It is the selection specific signs at any given moment from a range of signs to produce a meaningful utterance. The signs (words) find meaning in relation to selections made in utterance.

Paradigm: “A paradigm is a set of rules and regulations (written or unwritten) that does two things: 1) it establishes or defines boundaries; and 2) it tells you how to behave inside the boundaries in order to be successful”. (Joel Arthur Barker) “A shared set of assumptions. The paradigm is the way we perceive the world. The paradigm explains the world to us and helps us to predict its behavior.”…

Motivation: The degree of direct relation to that which is represented.

• Example: A photo has a high motivation because there is more constraint by the referent. The photo looks like what it is supposed to look like. A painting has lower motivation and less constraint by the referent because it will not look exactly like what it is supposed to.

Convention: Something regarded as a norm. Conventions are socially understood rules for understanding signs.

• Example: “wobbly-vision” and ethereal music in a film would signify a flashback.
• Example 2: There aren’t different types of sounds for different colours, but we know which colour is which because of social conventions.

The less motivated a sign has, the more we rely on convention in order to comprehend (or produce) its meaning.

Denotation: A first order sign. It is the basic level of meaning from a sign. It is the direct reference to the referent (what).

• Example: The meaning most likely to appear in a dictionary. Denotations tell you WHAT something is.
• Example 2: Jean Chretien = Prime Minister.

Connotation: Are second order signs. They tell you HOW you should interpret something. Indirect socially framed reference to quality of object (how)

• Example: ‘Jean Chretien, (trustworthy, dictorial, indecisive…) Prime Minister.’ This can be seen in newscasts/newspapers. They are telling us how to think

Myth:

• Myth is a second order sign
• Takes a denotative first order sign is and uses it as a second order sign to connote something more.
• It manifests (via convention) socially framed meanings.
• Myth is the realm of norms, values, beliefs and ideology (i.e. Sign/Signifier – Canadian flag, Signified = Canada)
• Denotative level: flag signifies Canada
• Connotative level: flag signifies patriotismSignificance: Myth is the realm of communications inquiry.
• Myth is the underlying meanings of messages (i.e. signs and codes). Communications is really interested in defining the order of myths and how myths function with one another to produce norms, values, and beliefs and ideologies.

Lowest Common Denominator:

• It is when the media is charged with appealing to the “lowest common denominator”, it means they targeted the lowest expectations and broadest interests of an audience with a varying range of tastes.
• That which is widely agreed upon.
• The usage of myth and portrayal of ‘bedrock’ norms, values and beliefs.
• Significance: By aiming at the lowest common denominator, the media doesn’t exclude anyone out of the norms. Moreover, the media targets a greater audience and this usually happens in primetime.
• Example: The news appearing at 6pm, or the superbowl at 8pm.

H. Lasswell:

• A political scientist who was mainly interested in mass media.
• Emphasis on social context over logistics.What matters in communication: Who (says) What (to) Whom (in) What Channel (with) What Effect.
• Feared that power by few would
• Whoever has control of the mass media has control of the population.
• Who owns What? What are they saying?
• Said that we are guided by the media. We don’t think for ourselves.
• Example: Nazi style propaganda – control of media = control of population.
• Nazis censored art which consisted of ideas of culture and those who opposed them.

H. Newcomb:

• A Social Psychologist who was concerned with the formation of political beliefs. Studied how mass media reinforces the status quo & reinforces the norms. Said that the media has an ‘Agenda Setting.’ He studied how television reinforces/reshapes our world views!
• Example: We only think about what we constantly see. The more we watch violence on television, the more we tend to think the world is a violent place – thus shaping the norms.

R. Jakobson:

• 

  R. Jakobson

  A Russian American linguist (not a communications theorist). Bridges process & semiotic approaches by focusing on the linguistic nature of communication rather than the event. Studied how individuals come up with different interpretations; how a writer can portray such meanings. He stated that messages operate on multiple levels (e.g. text, diction, body language…). All of these aspects occur simultaneously.

The Magic Lantern

Magic Lantern:

• A device for projecting images painted on glass with translucent colours. It is composed of a light source which was supplied by candles or an oil lamp and lenses. The origins of are not fully known.
• the earliest form of a slide projector
• popular with the middle class
• popular visual culture in Victorian era
• often used by public speakers

Camera Obscura

Camera Obscura:

• A device used by early artists to display a scene on the wall of an otherwise-darkened room so that it could be more-easily copied. A small hole placed in an opposite wall permitted light to enter the room (the “camera”), and the scene outside became transmitted inside, and was shown inverted on the rear wall or sometimes on a screen. The camera obscura is the origin of the modern camera.

E. Muybridge:

• Was a British-born photographer, known primarily for his early use of multiple cameras to capture motion. He wanted to prove that when a horse is galloping, all four of its legs are off the ground at some point. He proved this by taking a series of still images to capture the horse’s motion. This was for scientific visualization rather than commercial entertainment. However, the system was a precursor to the development of the motion picture.

Nickelodeons

Nickelodeons:

• They were incredibly popular and prompted the move to longer subjects, bigger screens, and larger audiences.
• These were the first kind of cinemas.
• People would pay a nickel to watch a short movie – dealt with simple things (e.g. a parade of some sort, a person waiting for a train).
• They appeared in theatre and vaudeville districts.

T. Edison:

• He invented the microphone and the Kinetoscope (1847-1931). He also tried to monopolize the film industry. He set rules and regulations for various others to work by or else he would sue them if they went against his authority.
  • Significance: He practically pioneered the Hollywood studio system. The five major film studios grew independently from his film monopolizations.

T. Ince:

• Was a filmmaker during the “Nickelodean Era” – silent motion pictues.
• He was an American silent film director, producer and screenwriter.
• Developed many of the production and business techniques which grew into the Hollywood system.

Hollywood Studio System:

• Factory-like production facilites
• Longer narrative films over novelty shorts.
• Emphasis on popular subjects.
• Star system later emerged – celebrities.

Hays Code Disclaimer

Hays office/code:

• The Hays code is essentially the precursor to the rating system we have now.
• Effort to regulate content of Hollywood.
• “Immoral” behavior on and off screen was targeted.
• Great concern over positive portrayal of crime & effect on youth.
• Determined what was and was not considered morally acceptable in the production of United States motion pictures.

Manufacturing Consent

E. Herman & N. Chomsky: Manufacturing consent highly influential (1988)

• The propaganda model
• The mass media “serve to mobilize support for the special interests of the dominant state and private activity, and their choices, emphases, and omissions can often be understood best […] by analyzing them in such terms.”
• Rejects notion that media is critical; proposes that media is a vital component of the ruling interests; critique is illusory.
  • Significance: Because they believed that the media merely functions under the umbrella of government dominance, the media serves as a propaganda tool for enhancing government interest. This was a Frankfurt school way of media analysis.
    • Example: Election candidate ads serve as a propagandistic mechanism of the government’s multiple interests.

Serial Programming:

• A story that “never” ends, but is continuous.
  • Significance: Because these stories hardly end, these programs make audiences of it familiar with the multiple characters of that narrative; therefore, making the program run for longer periods because of audience approval.
    • Example: Days of our Lives…

Series Programming:

• Series: a periodical that appears at scheduled times.
  • Significance: This is significant because it creates an audience who waits in apprehension for the program. By doing this, shows can gain in popularity quicker.
    • Example: KEIFER SUTHERLAND/24.

Information Advertising Approach:

• Takes the form of the ‘how and why” approach. They are text heavy and explain in detail the product being advertised. Emphasis on the quality and benefits of the product. Ads from 1880-1920 were like this.
• Example: Crest’s ads were text heavy, explaining why you should buy their product.

Image Advertising Approach:

• Ads from 1920-1950.
• Image advertising emphasize a prominent brand name or logo, and have abstract settings.
• The products are associated with social qualities.
  • Example: An ad showing an open mouthed smile would be an ad for Crest’s newest whitening toothpaste.
  • Example 2: Social judgment is implied by the product’s usage. Coke = refreshing; Crest = white teeth.

Personalization Advertising Approach:

• Ads from 1950-1970
• Relation between product and self.
• Personal satisfaction can be bought.
• Sensuality becomes prominent (reflects social trends).
  • Example: Woman don’t have to shave their legs, but media advertising and repeated bombardment with the concept of beauty makes it seem preferable to shave their legs.

Lifestyle Advertising Approach:

• Advertising method relates to social status
• Can be Broadcast (large group) and/or Narrowcast (small group)
  • Example: BMW or Rolex = higher status products; higher income; higher class

FCC:

• Federal Communications Commission – A US body which regulates broadcasting and telecommunications signals.
• Regulation stopped the growing expansion of conglomerates.
• The FCC is America’s version of the CRTC.

[intlink id="1018" type="post"]Flak[/intlink]:

• An organized attempt to influence media content. Flak is used to put emphasis on certain things. Flak is essentially the way organizations control what is reported and what isn’t.
  • Example: The government is currently derailing information regarding the Avian flu in order to prevent panic.

SABRE –> Semi-Automated Business Research Environment
SAGE –> Semi-Automated Ground Environment

• Developed in 1950.
• SAGE & SABRE were governed by the military.
• The internet was primarily the result of military expenditure.
• SAGE & SABRE were the first true networks.
• They were developed by the military to keep a close guard of American zones.
• Significance: SAGE & SABRE opened up the possibility that networking and terminal development/construction was possible and that computer mediated communication (CMC) could potentially be done. Distance could potentially be conquered in a different way through a different network system unlike radio or television.

ARPANET: The first packet switched network used to connect different types of computer systems. ARPANET was the predecessor to the Internet.

Advanced Research Projects Agency Network

• developed by the US defense department
• the 1st packet-switching network
• internet on a global scale
• allowed for faster comm.
• globally, many people could simultaneously communicate in real time
• the basis of our modern internet system

WWW:

• The “World Wide Web” is a collection of online documents stored on servers around the world that are connected to the Internet. The documents are formatted in a language called HTML (HyperText Markup Language) that supports links to other documents, as well as graphics, audio, and video files. This means you can jump from one document to another simply by clicking on hot spots.

Technological Convergence

Technological Convergence:

• The shift from analog to digital media.
• The fusion of computer, telephone, and television industries into a single industry.
• Combination of traditional mass media with the emergent mass medium of the web.
• CMC is creating a new infrastructure to allow for all this connectivity.

Technological Determinism:

• It is a reductionist doctrine that a society’s technology determines its cultural values, social structure, or history. Most interpretations of technological determinism share two general ideas:
  that the development of technology itself follows a path largely beyond cultural or political influence
  that technology in turn has “effects” on societies that are inherent, rather than socially conditioned

CMC:

• Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) is any form of communication between two or more individual people who interact and/or influence each other via separate computers through the Internet or a network connection – using social software.

C31:

• C3I is a fundamental sector of all modern organizational forms
• Organizational and comm. systems have military origins
• Command: hierarchical network of power relations
• Control: regulation of social systems via CIT
• Communication: process
• binding individuals to institutions
• Information: surveillance and propaganda

Communication information technology is essential to new world order because it provides the infrastructure of command, control, communication and information (C3I) necessary to enable social control mechanisms (e.g. government control, institutions).

Control is the management of communication; it does not mean the control.

BBS:

• The cyberspace equivalent to the office bulletin board, a BBS is software that allows users to post and read messages left by other users. Bulletin Board Systems were very popular in the 1980′s when computer enthusiasts set up their own systems on personal computers.
  • Significance: The implication here is that since the BBS were the first ever functioning e-mailing service, it provided the possibility of distance e-mailing service.
    • Example: A forum runs using this kind of system! People leave messages and return with a reply from it.

Portals:

• Usually used to describe a browser-based gateway to a variety of content resources. Historically directed at the internet but more increasingly used to describe a means of delivering enterprise-wide content to users. A portal is generally regarded as the essential means of delivery for enterprise content, and is often accessed by a corporate intranet.
  • Significance: Portals allow for information to be widely circulated amongst the public sphere. Portals aren’t restricted by distances. Anyone at any time has the ability to seize information without discretionary procedures.
    • Example: Google functions as a portal. It is a gateway to a variety of content resources. Anyone at any time can get any source of their choosing.

Multi-User Domains:

• These are miniature worlds that have been created purely from textual descriptions and textual art. They are called multi-user domains, because many people can operate in them at once.
  • Significance: The worlds tend to consist of a range of rooms which you may enter. All these rooms are described using only words. It is also usual to find people adopting characters and role-playing.
    • Example: Yahoo! chatroom.