The Glaring Facts » Organizational Behaviour http://www.theglaringfacts.com Psychology, Media, Politics, Money Management, SEO, German Lessons Sat, 18 May 2013 10:59:42 +0000 en-US hourly 1 http://wordpress.org/?v=3.5.1 What is Organizational Culture? http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/what-is-organizational-culture/ http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/what-is-organizational-culture/#comments Sun, 02 Dec 2012 18:47:10 +0000 The Glaring Facts http://theglaringfact.green-atlas.com/?p=225 Defining Organizational Culture

Organizational culture is the study of people in an institution whose shared values, norms and histories are intrinsically associated as part of the cultural framework of its respective environment. Organizational culture seeks to understand the web of cultural norms, values, and beliefs. Organizational culture is a mix of a variety of social sciences including sociology, and anthropology. The founding theoretician of organizational culture, Edgar Shein stated that:

A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. (Schein 373-374).

Edgar Shein basically interpreted an organizational culture to have a dynamic fluctuating atmosphere. In this manner, the culture can survive among the changing atmosphere. Here, Shein comments on the interplay of the external and internal forces which influence the progression of the culture. The exchanges between the internal and external environment respectively determine whether or not the organization will be successful. The sharing of values, norms, and beliefs becomes a critical asset for the sustenance of the organization. Newer members of an organization, says Shein, receive these respective norms, values and beliefs as a way of advancing and surviving. In summary, the organization must weave through generations in an attempt to survive. In Shein’s perspective, the organizational culture functions in retrospect with group contribution and preservation of the organizational unit.

Organizational Culture and Carl Jung

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personality and organizational culture, personality + organizational culture, personal ethics and organizational culture, person organizational culture,

Organizational Culture Unity

In contrast, Carl Jung, a swiss psychiatrist and the founder of analytical psychology proposes the archetypal indoctrination of the human psyche. Although not specifically oriented with the organizational cultural approach to corporate development and progression, the issue Jung raises is of explicit importance to the meaning-making systems that govern the organizational unit. Jungian psychoanalytic theory considers the presence of a collective unconscious in which its existence is best understood by “the primordial image, or archetype.” The archetype is a construction that is transcendental, existing without a medium and intangible. Jung notes that archetypes are like rituals in that they are “repeated countless times in our ancestral history” The notion of archetypes is relevant as a method for analyzing organizational culture because it explains the powerful associations held within the culture. The archetype functions as the norm, values and beliefs held with high esteem. These are practiced without conscious effort, hence the collective unconscious: processes that are produced without awareness. When organizations develop policies during the beginning stages of its development, they develop them out of its importance. These policies then become practiced repeatedly throughout the organizational unit’s history. In this manner, these policies become archetypal—the mythological behaviours, values and norms required by the organization to further its existence. Once these policies come into conflict with the society it has inhabited, the policies must be changed for the survival of the organizational unit. For example: A salesperson encounters a potential customer. The salesperson tries the sales pitch and finds that the potential customer is looking for a deal and not the regular prices; the salesperson lists all possible promotional rates for the potential customer but the customer finds no relevant savings opportunities. Essentially, the policies that the salesperson enacted did not work and, in order to get the customer, the salesperson must exercise creative fantasy. This way, the salesperson can adjust the organizational policies to suit the customer adding the customer as part of their enterprise—this eventually assists the organizational culture to maintain its influence. Essentially, the organizational unit is part of the collective unconscious. To survive, the organizational culture must understand the changes that take place throughout history.

]]> http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/what-is-organizational-culture/feed/ 1 What is Communication (Part 2) http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/what-is-communication-part-2/ http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/what-is-communication-part-2/#comments Fri, 30 Nov 2012 18:41:35 +0000 The Glaring Facts http://theglaringfacts.com/?p=517 The Grapevine

  • Characteristics of the Grapevine
    • Grapevine: an organization’s informal communication network. The grapevine cuts across the chain of command that are recognized by management.
    • Occurs through word of mouth transmission. There are several (i.e. “office grapevine”). The grapevine can transmit information relevant to the performance of the organization as well as personal gossip.
  • Who Participates in the Grapevine
    • Extraverts might be more likely to pass on information than introverts. Those who lack self-esteem might pass on information that gives them a personal advantage.
  • Pros and Cons of the Grapevine
    • Rumour: an unverified belief that is in general circulation. The grapevine can be a real problem when rumours become spread around. Rumours spread the fastest and farthest when the information is especially ambiguous, when the content of the rumour is important to those involve, when the rumour seems credible, and when the recipient is anxious.
    • It can keep employees informed about important organizational matters, such as job security. In some organizations, management is so notoriously lax at this that the grapevine is a regular substitute for formal communication. It can add a little interest and diversion to the work setting.

The Verbal Language of Work

  • Jargon: specialized language used by job holders or members of particular occupations or organizations.
  • While jargon is an efficient means of communicating with peers and provides a touch of status to those who have mastered it, it can also serve as a barrier to communicating with others. For example, local jargon might serve as a barrier to clear communication between departments such as sales and engineering.

The Nonverbal Language at Work

  • Nonverbal communication: the transmission of messages by some medium other than speech or writing.
  • Body Language
    • Body language: nonverbal communication by means of a sender’s bodily emotions, facial expressions, or physical location.
  • Props, artifacts, and costumes.
    • Office décor and arrangement: the décor and arrangement of furniture in a person’s office conveys nonverbal information to visitors.
    • Does clothing communicate? Research reveals that clothing does indeed communicate. Research simulations have shown that more masculinely dressed and groomed women are more likely to be selected for executive jobs.

Gender Differences in Communication

  • According to Deborah Tannen, there are gender differences in communication styles
    • Girls see conversations as a way to develop relationships and networks of connection and intimacy.
    • Boys view conversations as a way for them to achieve status within groups and to maintain independence.

Cross-Cultural Communication

  • Cross cultural communication can be extremely difficult and broad across spectrums of localized understanding.
  • Language Differences
    • Communication is generally better between individuals or groups who share similar cultural values. Despite acknowledged differences in terminology, North American and British people should not have difficulty understanding one another.
  • Nonverbal Communication across cultures
    • Facial expressions (some are more able to detect anger, surprise or fear), gestures, gaze (some cultures encourage/discourage it), touch (cultures have different opinions about this)
    • Etiquette and Politeness across cultures
    • Cultures differ considerably in how etiquette and politeness are expressed. Very often, this involves saying things that one does not literally mean. The problem is that the exact form that it takes varies across cultures, and careful decoding is necessary to avoid confusion and embarrassment.
    • In some cultures, politeness is expressed with modesty that seems excessive to North Americans.
  • Social conventions across cultures
    • Cultural differences in a simple “hello” are tremendous. These differences can lead to huge misunderstandings.
  • Cultural context
    • Cultural context: the cultural information that surrounds a communication episode
    • Some cultures are high context cultures. That means that the message contained in communication is strongly influenced by the context in which the message is sent. In high-context cultures, literal interpretations are often incorrect.
    • Low context cultures: less aware of nonverbal cues, environment and situation, lack well-developed networks, need detailed background information, tend to segment and compartmentalize information, control information on a “need-to-know” basis, prefer explicit and careful directions from someone who “knows”, knowledge is a commodity.
    • High context cultures: (most information drawn from surroundings. Very little must be explicitly transferred). Nonverbal important, information flows freely, physical context relied upon for information, environment and situation and gestures must all be taken into account, maintain extensive information networks.
]]> http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/what-is-communication-part-2/feed/ 1 Leadership Styles and Organizational Influence http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/leadership-styles-organizational-influence/ http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/leadership-styles-organizational-influence/#comments Tue, 29 Nov 2011 09:05:40 +0000 The Glaring Facts http://communicationsknowledge.wordpress.com/?p=460 [table_of_contents]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Leadership

  • Leadership: The influence that particular individuals exert on the goal achievement of others in an organizational context.

Are Leaders Born? The Search for Leadership Traits

  • Research on Leadership Traits

    • Traits: individual characteristics such as physical attributes, intellectual ability, and personality. Traits associated with leadership effectiveness include: intelligence, energy, self-confidence, dominance, motivation to lead, emotional stability, honesty and integrity, need for achievement.
    • The “Big Five” (agreeableness, extraversion, openness to experience) personality assessments resulted from these research interests with traits.

  • Limitations of the Trait Approach

    • It is difficult to determine whether traits make the leader or whether the opportunity for leadership produces the traits.
    • We have few clues about what dominant or tall or intelligent people do to influence others successfully
    • The most crucial problem of the trait approach to leadership is its failure to take into account the situation in which leadership occurs.

Lessons from Emergent Leadership

  • Task Leader: a leader who is concerned with accomplishing a task by organizing others, planning strategy, and dividing labour.
  • Social-emotional leader: a leader who is concerned with reducing tension, patching up disagreements, settling arguments, and maintaining morale.
  • In many cases, the two leadership roles are performed by the same person

Behaviour of Assigned Leaders

  • Consideration

    • Consideration: the extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern and respect for employees.
    • Initiating structure: the degree to which a leader concentrates on group goal attainment.

  • The consequences of consideration and structure

    • In general, research shows that consideration and initiating structure both contribute positively to employees’ motivation, job satisfaction, and leader effectiveness. However, consideration tends to be more strongly related to follower satisfaction (leader satisfaction and job satisfaction), motivation, and leader effectiveness, while initiating structure is slightly more strongly related to leader job performance and group performance.

  • Leader reward and punishment behaviours

    • Leader reward behaviour: the leader’s use of complements, tangible benefits, and deserved special treatment. When such rewards are made contingent on performance, employees should perform at high level and experience job satisfaction. Very positively related to behavioural changes.
    • Leader punishment behaviour: the leader’s use of reprimands or unfavourable task assignments and the active withholding of rewards.

Situational Theories of Leadership

  • Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

    • Contingency Theory: Fred Fiedler’s theory that states that the association between leadership orientation and group effectiveness is contingent on how favourable the situation is for exerting influence. In other words, some situations are more favourable for leadership than others, and these situations require different orientations on the part of the leader.

  • Leadership Orientation

    • Least Preferred Co-worker: a current or past co-worker with whom a leader has had a difficult time accomplishing a task.
    • LPC reveals a personality trait that reflects the leader’s motivational structure.

  • Situational Favourableness (the “contingency” part of the contingency theory)

    • According to Fiedler, a favourable leadership situation exists when the leader has a high degree of control and when the results of this control are very predictable
      • Leader-member relations: when the leadership between the leader and the group members is good, the leader is in a favourable situation to exert influence.
      • Task structure: When the task at hand is highly structured, the leader should be able to exert considerable influence on the group.
      • Position power: position power is the formal authority granted to the leader by the organization to tell others what to do.

  • House’s Path-Goal Theory

    • Path-Goal Theory: Robert House’s theory concerned with the situations under which various leader behaviours (directive, supportive, participative, achievement oriented) are most effective.
    • To provide job satisfaction and leader acceptance, leader behaviour must be perceived as immediately satisfying or as leading to future satisfaction
    • Situational Factors: Path-Goal Theory has concerned itself with two primary classes of situational factors – employee characteristics and environmental factors

Participative Leadership: Involving Employees in Decisions

  • What is Participation?
    • Participative leadership: involving employees in making work-related decisions.
  • Potential Advantages of Participative Leadership
    • Motivation: participation can increase the motivation of employees. Participation permits them to contribute to the establishment of work goals and to decide how they can accomplish these tasks.
    • Quality: participation can enhance quality in two ways: 1) people working together usually results in a higher-quality decisions than the leader could make alone.
    • Acceptance: Even when participation does not promote motivation or increase the quality of decisions, it can increase the employee’s acceptance of decisions. This is especially likely when issues of fairness are involved.
  • Potential Problems of Participative Leadership
    • Time & Energy: Participation is not a state of mind. It involves specific behaviours on the part of the leader and these behaviours use time and energy.
    • Loss of power: Some leaders feel that a participative style will reduce their power and influence.
    • Lack of receptivity of knowledge è Employees might not be receptive to participation. When the leader is distrusted, or when a poor labour climate exists, they might resent “having to do management’s work.”

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

  • LMX Theory: A theory of leadership that focuses on the quality of the relationship that develops between a leader and an employee.

Transformational and Transactional Leadership

  • Transactional Leadership: leadership based on a fairly straight-forward exchange between the leader and the followers—employees perform well, and the leader rewards them.
  • Management by exception: The leader takes corrective action on the basis of results of leader-follower transactions. They monitor follower behaviour, anticipate problems, and take corrective actions before the behaviour creates serious problems.
  • Transformational Leadership: providing followers with a new vision that instills true commitment.
    • Intellectual Stimulation
      • Intellectual stimulation contributes, in part, to the “new vision” aspect of transformational leadership. People are stimulated to think about problems, issues, and strategies in new ways.
    • Individualized Consideration
      • Individualized consideration involves treating employees as distinct individuals, indicating concern for their needs and personal development, and serving as a mentor or coach when appropriate. The emphasis is a one-on-one attempt to meet the concerns and needs of the individual in question in the context of the overall goal or mission.
    • Inspirational Motivation
      • Inspirational motivation involves the communication of visions that are appealing and inspiring to followers.
    • Charisma(i.e. idealized influence)
      • Charisma: the ability to command strong loyalty and devotion from followers and thus have the potential for strong influence among them. Charisma provides the emotional aspect of transformational leadership
    • Transformational leadership strongly related to follower motivation and satisfaction (satisfaction w/ leader performance), leader effectiveness, group & organizational effectiveness. Transformational behaviours are instrumental in developing high-quality LMX relationships and for enhancing employee’s perceptions of their work atmosphere.

Strategic leadership

  • In today’s rapidly changing and uncertain environment, leaders must be much more strategic than in the past when the environment was more certain and stable.
  • Strategic leadership: leadership that involves the ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, think strategically, and work with others to initiate changes that will create a viable future for the organization

Culture and Global Leadership

  • Implicit leadership theory: individuals hold a set of beliefs about the kinds of attributes, personality characteristics, skills, and behaviours that contribute to or impede outstanding leadership. Cultural dimensions from the GLOBE Project outlined 21 primary and 6 global leadership dimensions that are contributors or inhibitors of outstanding leadership.

Global Leadership

  • Global Leadership: a set of leadership capabilities required to function effectively in different cultures and the ability to cross language, social, economic, and political borders. Global leaders have the following characteristics: unbridled inquisitiveness, personal character, duality (manage uncertainty & balance global and local tensions), savvy (must be aware of new business trends)

Ethical Leadership

  • Ethical Leadership: the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making.
  • Ethical leaders model what is acceptable and normal behaviour (honesty, trustworthiness, fairness, & care)
  • Laissez-faire leadership: a style of leadership that involves the avoidance or absence of leadership.

 

]]> http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/leadership-styles-organizational-influence/feed/ 0 Values, Attitudes and Work Behaviour http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/work-behaviour/ http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/work-behaviour/#comments Sun, 27 Nov 2011 15:43:22 +0000 The Glaring Facts http://communicationsknowledge.wordpress.com/?p=440 [table_of_contents]

What are Values?

  • Values: a broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others. Values have to do with what we consider good or bad. Broad tendency means that values are very general, and that they do not predict behaviour in specific situations very well.
  • Values across cultures
    • Power distance: the extent to which an unequal distribution of power is accepted by society members.
    • Uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which people are uncomfortable with uncertain and ambiguous situations.
    • Individualistic vs. collective: individualistic societies stress independence, individual initiative and privacy. Collective cultures favour interdependence and loyalty to family or clan
    • Masculinity/Femininity
    • Long-term/short-term orientation
  • Implications of cultural Variation
    • Exporting OB Theories: OB theories, research, and practises from north America might not translate well to other societies.

What are Attitudes?

  • Attitudes: a fairly stable evaluative tendency to respond consistently to some specific object, situation, person, or category of people.
  • BELIEF + VALUE = Attitude = Behaviour

What is Job Satisfaction?

  • Job satisfaction: a collection of attitudes that workers have about their jobs.

What Determines Job Satisfaction?

  • Discrepency theory: A theory that job satisfaction stems from the discrepancy between the job outcomes wanted and the outcomes that are perceived to be obtained.
  • Fairness
    • Issues of fairness affect both what people want from their jobs and how they react to the inevitable discrepancies of organizational life. There are three kinds of fairness:
    • Distributive fairnesshas to do with the outcomes we receive
      • Equity theory: a theory that job satisfaction stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group.
      • Inputs: Anything that people give up, offer, or trade to their organization in exchange for outcomes
      • Outcomes: factors that an organization distributes to employees in exchange for their inputs.
    • Procedural fairness (procedural justice) concerns the process that led to those outcomes
    • Interactional fairness concerns how these matters were communicated to us.
  • Mood and Emotion
    • Emotion: intense, often short-lived feelings caused by a particular event.
    • Moods: less intense, longer-lived, and more diffuse feelings.
    • Emotional contagion: tendency for moods and emotions to spread between people or throughout a group.
    • Emotional regulation: requirement for people to conform to certain “display rules” in their job behaviour in spite of their true mood or emotions. Takes a toll on job satisfaction and increases stress.
  • Key Contributors to Job Satisfaction

Consequences of Job Satisfaction

  • Absence from work
  • Turnover: refers to resignation from an organization, and it can be incredibly expensive.
  • Less satisfied workers being more likely to quit.
  • Performance: Job satisfaction is related to enhanced work performance.
  • Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB): Voluntary, informal behaviour that contributes to organizational effectiveness. OCB is courtesy and cooperation. Fairness is the key to high OCB.

What is Organizational Commitment

  • Organizational commitment:an attitude that reflects the strength of the linkage between an employee and an organization.
    • Affective commitment: Commitment based on identification and involvement with an organization.
    • Continuance commitment: commitment based on the costs that would be incurred in leaving an organization.
    • Normative commitment: Commitment based on ideology or a feeling of obligation to an organization.

 

]]> http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/work-behaviour/feed/ 1 Decision Making http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/decision-making/ http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/decision-making/#comments Sat, 26 Nov 2011 10:59:18 +0000 The Glaring Facts http://theglaringfacts.com/?p=522 What is Decision Making?

  • Decision Making: The process of developing a commitment to some course of action. Decision making involves three aspects: choices, process, and resources
  • Problem: a perceived gap between an existing state and a desired state.
  • Well-Structured Problems
    • Well-structured problem: A problem for which the existing state is clear, the desired state is clear, and how to get from one state to the other is fairly obvious.
    • The solutions to these problems follow programs: a standardized way of solving a problem. Programs usually go under labels such as rules, standard operating procedures/rule of thumb.
  • Ill-Structured Problem
    • Ill-structured problem: a problem for which the existing and desired states are unclear, and the method of getting to the desired state is unknown. They are unique and unusual, problems like these are not encountered frequently

The Complete Decision Maker—A Rational Decision-Making Model

  • The Perfect vs. Bounded Rationality
    • Perfect rationality: a decision strategy that is completely informed, perfectly logical, and oriented toward economic gain.
    • Bounded rationality: a decision strategy that relies on limited information and that reflects time constraints and political considerations.
    • Framing: aspects of the presentation of information about a problem that are assumed by decision makers.
    • Cognitive biases: tendencies to acquire and process information in an error-prone way.
  • Problem Identification and Framing
    • Perceptual defense è Perceptual system may act to defend the perceiver against unpleasant perceptions.
    • Problem defined in terms of functional specialty è selective perception can cause decision makers to view a problem as being in the domain of their own specialty, even when some other perspective might be warranted.
    • Problem defined in terms of solution è this form of jumping to conclusions effectively short-circuits the rational decision-making process.
    • Problem diagnosed in terms of symptoms è Concentration on surface symptoms will provide the decision maker will few clues about an adequate solution.
  • Information Search
    • Confirmation bias: the tendency to seek out information that conforms to one’s own definition of or solution to a problem (too little information)
    • Information overload: the reception of more information than is necessary to make effective decisions (too much information).
    • Alternative Development, Evaluation, & Choice
    • Maximization: the choice of the decision alternative with the greatest unexpected value.
    • The decision maker working under bounded rationality frequently “satisfices” rather than maximizes.
    • Satisficing: establishing an adequate level of acceptability for a solution to a problem and then screening solutions until one that exceeds this level is found.
  • Solution Evaluation
    • People tend to be overconfident about the adequacy of their decisions; thus, substantial dissonance can be aroused when a decision turns out to be faulty.
    • Sunk costs: Permanent losses of resources incurred as the result of a decision.
    • Escalation of commitment: the tendency to invest additional resources in an apparently failing course of action.
    • Hindsight: the tendency to review the decision-making process to find what was done right or wrong. While hindsight can prove useful, it often reflects a cognitive bias (the I-knew-it-all-along effect)
  • How Emotion and Mood Affect Decision Making
    • Decision makers in a good mood can overestimate the likelihood of good events and use shortcut decision strategies.

Group Decision Making

  • Why use Groups?
    • Groups are: 1) more vigilant than individuals are (more people looking at same problem), 2) generate more ideas than individuals can, 3) evaluate ideas better than individuals can.
    • Decision acceptance and commitment: Decisions made in this way will be more acceptable to those involved.
    • Diffusion of responsibility: the ability of group members to share the burden of the negative consequences of a poor decision.
  • Do groups actually make higher-quality decisions than individuals?
    • Groups usually produce more and better solutions to problems than do individuals working alone. Group members differ in skills & abilities, division of labour can occur, individual judgments can be combined and weighted based on the problem at hand.
  • Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
    • Time: Groups seldom work quickly or efficiently compared with individuals.
    • Conflict: Participants in group decisions have their own personal axes to grind or their own resources to protect.
    • Domination: The advantages will seldom be realized if meetings are dominated by a single individual or a small coalition.
    • Groupthink: The capacity for group pressure to damage the mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment of decision-making groups (Illusion of invulnerability, Rationalization, Illusion of morality, Stereotypes of outsiders, Pressure for conformity, self-censorsip, illusion of unanimity, mindguards)
  • How do groups handle risk?
    • Risk shift: the tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than the average risk initially advocated by their individual members.
    • Conservative shift: the tendency for groups to make less risky decisions than the average risk initially advocated by their individual members.

Improving Decision Making in Organizations

  • Training Decision Leaders
  • Stimulating and Managing Controversy
    • Devil’s advocate: a person appointed to identify and challenge the weaknesses of a proposed plan or strategy
    • Managing controversy must come in an organized debate-like format
  • Traditional and Electronic Brainstorming
    • Brainstorming: an attempt to increase the number of creative solution alternatives to problems by focusing on idea generation rather than evaluation (was originally conceived as a group technique. Individuals are more able to come up with more decisions than groups because of group disadvantages listed above)
    • Electronic brainstorming: the use of computer-mediated technology to improve traditional brainstorming practises.
  • Nominal Group Technique
    • Nominal Group Technique: a structured group decision-making technique in which ideas are generated without group interaction and then systematically evaluated by the group. Ideas are generated separately to prevent group inhibition and conformity.
  • The Delphi Technique

The Delphi Technique: a method of pooling a large number of expert judgments by using a series of increasingly refined questionnaires.

Stage Perfect Rationality Bounded Rationality
Problem Identification Easy, accurate perception of gaps that constitute problems Perceptual difference; jump to solutions; attention to symptoms rather than problems; mood affects memory.
Information Search Free; fast; right amount obtained Slow; costly; reliance on flawed memory; obtain too little or too much
Development of alternative solutions.

Evaluation of alternative solutions

 Can conceive of all

Ultimate value of each known; probability of each known; only criterion is economic gain

 Not all known

Potential ignorance of or miscalculation of values and probabilities; criteria include political factors; affected by mood.
Solution Choice

Solution Implementation

 Maximizes

Considered in evaluation of alternatives

 Satisfices

May be difficult owing to reliance on others
Solution Evaluation Objective, according to previous steps May involve justification, escalation to recover sunk costs, faulty hindsight.
]]> http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/decision-making/feed/ 1 What is Communication (Part 1) http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/what-is-communication-part-1/ http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/what-is-communication-part-1/#comments Wed, 16 Nov 2011 04:00:33 +0000 The Glaring Facts http://theglaringfacts.com/?p=513 What is Communication?

  • Communication: the process by which information is exchanged between a sender and a receiver. Interpersonal communication –> the exchange of information between people
  • Effective communication: The right people receive the right information in a timely manner.

Basics of Organizational Communication

  • Chain of command: lines of authority and formal reporting relationships
  • Downward communication: information that flows from the top of the organization toward the bottom.
  • Upward communication: information that flows from the bottom of the organization toward the top.
  • Horizontal communication: information that flows between departments or functional units, usually as a means of coordinating effort.

Deficiencies in the Chain of Command

  • Informal communication: chain in command fails to consider informal communication between members. Not all informal communication benefits the organization. It might begin unsavoury, inaccurate rumours across the organization.
  • Filtering: the tendency for a message to be watered down or stopped during transmission. Overzealous filtering will result in improper effective communication resulting in the organization’s lack of effective continuation. Upward filtering occurs because employees are afraid that their boss will use the information against them. Downward filtering is often due to time pressures or simple lack of attention to detail, but more sinister motives may be at work. The potential for filtering increases with the number of links in to communication chain.
  • Open door policy: the opportunity for employees to communicate with a manager without going through the chain of command.
    • Slowness: even when the chain of command transmits information faithfully, it can be painfully slow. It can even be slower for horizontal communication between departments, and it is not a good mechanism for reacting quickly to customer problems.

Manager-Employee Communication

  • It represents a key element in upward and downward communication in organizations. Ideally, such exchange should enable the boss to instruct the employee in proper task performance, clarify reward contingencies, and provide social-emotional support.
  • How Good is Manager-Employee Communication?
    • The extent to which managers and employees agree about work-related matters and are sensitive to each other’s point of view is one index of good communication. Perceptual differences should include: how employees should and do allocate time, how long it takes to learn a job, importance employees attach to pay, amount of authority the employee has, the employee’s skills and abilities, etc…
    • Perceptual differences like these suggest a lack of openness in communication, which might contribute to role conflict and ambiguity, especially on the part of employees.
  • Barriers to Effective Manager-Employee Communication
    • Conflicting Role Demands: Many managers have a difficult time attending to both task and social-emotional functions
  • The Mum Effect: the tendency to avoid communicating unfavorable news to others. It occurs when employees desire to impress their bosses to achieve a promotion have strong motives to withhold bad news. The bosses might be reluctant to transmit bad news downward too.
]]> http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/what-is-communication-part-1/feed/ 3 Organizational Conflict, Origins and Resolution http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/organizational-conflict-origins-and-resolution/ http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/organizational-conflict-origins-and-resolution/#comments Sat, 12 Nov 2011 08:44:41 +0000 The Glaring Facts http://theglaringfacts.com/?p=546 What is Conflict?

  • Interpersonal conflict: the process that occurs when one person, group, or organizational subunit frustrates the goal attainment of another.

Causes of Organizational Conflict?

  • Group Identification and Intergroup Bias
    • Intergroup bias occurs because of self-esteem. Identifying with the successes of one’s own group and disassociating oneself from outgroup failures boosts self-esteem and provides comforting feelings of social solidarity.
  • Interdependence
    • When individuals or subunits are mutually dependent on each other to accomplish their own goals, the potential for conflict exists. Interdependence can set the stage for conflict for two reasons: 1) it necessitates interaction between the parties so that they can coordinate their interests, 2) interdependence implies that each party has some power over the other.
  • Differences in Power, Status, and Culture
    • Power: If dependence is not mutual, but one way, the potential for conflict increases.
    • Status: status differences provide little impetus for conflict when people of lower status are dependent on those of higher status.
    • Culture: When two or more very different cultures develop in an organization, the clash in beliefs and values can result in overt conflict.
  • Ambiguity
    • Ambiguous goals, jurisdictions, or performance criteria can lead to conflict. Under such ambiguity, the formal and informal rules that govern interaction break down.
  • Scarce Resources
    • Differences in power are magnified when resources become scarce.

Types of Conflict

  • Relationship conflict: Interpersonal tensions among individuals that have to do with their relationship per se, not the task at hand.
  • Task conflict: disagreements about the nature of the work to be done.
  • Process conflict: disagreements about how work should be organized and accomplished.

Modes of Managing Conflict

  • Avoiding: a conflict management style characterized by low assertiveness of one’s own interests and low cooperation with the other party.
  • Accommodating: a conflict management style in which one cooperates with the other party, while not asserting one’s own interests.
  • Competing: a conflict management style that maximizes assertiveness and minimizes cooperation.
  • Compromise: a conflict management style that combines intermediate levels of assertiveness and cooperation.
  • Collaborating: a conflict management style that maximizes both assertiveness and cooperation.

Managing Conflict with Negotiation

  • Negotiation: a decision-making process among interdependent parties who do not share identical preferences.
  • Distributive negotiation: win-lose negotiation in which a fixed amount of assets is divided between parties.
  • Integrative Negotiation: win-win negotiation that assumes that mutual problem solving can enlarge the assets to be divided between parties.
  • Distributive Negotiation Tactics
    • Threats: Threat consists of implying that you will punish the party if he/she does not concede to your position.
    • Firmness vs. Concessions: Sticking to your target position, offering few concessions, and waiting for the other party to give in.
    • Persuasion: verbal persuasion or debate is common in negotiations (technical merits & fairness of opponent’s position)
  • Integrative Negotiation Tactics
    • Copious information exchange: most of the information exchanged in distributive bargaining is concerned with attacking the other party’s position and trying to persuade them of the correctness of yours.
    • Framing differences as opportunities: parties in negotiation often differ in their preferences for everything from the timing of a deal to the degree of risk that each party wants to assume.
    • Cutting costs: If you can somehow cut the costs that the other party associates with an agreement, the chance of an integrative settlement increases.
    • Increasing resources: Increasing available resources is a very literal way of getting around the fixed-pie syndrome.
    • Introducing superordinate goals: superordinate goals: attractive outcomes that can be achieved only by collaboration.
  • Third Party Involvement
    • Mediation: The process of mediation occurs when a neutral third party helps to facilitate a negotiated agreement. Mediators do almost anything that aids the process or atmosphere of negotiation. The mediator can also intervene in the content of the negotiation, highlighting points of agreement, pointing out new options, or encouraging concessions.
    • Arbitration: The process of arbitration occurs when a third party is given the authority to dictate the terms of settlement of a conflict.
]]> http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/organizational-conflict-origins-and-resolution/feed/ 1 Organizational Strategies with Power (Part 2) http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/organizational-strategies2/ http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/organizational-strategies2/#comments Mon, 07 Nov 2011 22:17:55 +0000 The Glaring Facts http://theglaringfacts.com/?p=542 Controlling Strategic Contingencies – How Subunits Obtain Power

  • Subunit Power: the degree of power held by various organizational subunits, such as departments
  • Strategic contingencies: critical factors affecting organizational effectiveness that are controlled by a key subunit. This means that the work of other subunits perform is contingent on the activities and performance of a key subunit.
    • Scarcity
      • Differences in subunit power are likely to be magnified when resources become scarce. If budget cuts occur, differences in power will become apparent. Subunits tend to acquire power when they are able to secure scarce resources that are important to the organization as a whole.
    • Uncertainty
      • Organizations hate the unknown. Unanticipated events wreak havoc with financial commitments, long-range plans, and tomorrow’s operations.
    • Centrality
      • Subunits whose activities are most central to the work flow of the organization should acquire more power than those whose activities are more peripheral.
    • Substitutability
      • A subunit will have relatively little power if others inside or outside the organization can perform its activities. If the subunit’s staff is nonsubstitutable, however, it can acquire substantial power.

Organizational Politics – Using and Abusing Power

  • The Basics of Organizational Politics
    • Organizational politics: the pursuit of self-interest in an organization, whether or not this self-interest corresponds to organizational goals. Politics involves using means of influence that the organization does not sanction or pursuing ends or goals that are not sanctioned by the organization.
      • Sanctioned means/sanctioned ends: power is used routinely to pursue agreed-on goals. Familiar, accepted means of influence are employed to achieve sanctioned outcomes
      • Sanctioned means/nonsanctioned ends: acceptable means of influence are abused to pursue goals that the organization does not approve.
      • Nonsanctioned means/sanctioned ends: ends that are useful for the organization are pursued through questionable means
      • Nonsanctioned means/nonsanctioned ends: Exemplifies the most flagrant abuse of power, since disapproved tactics are used to pursue disapproved outcomes.
  • The Facets of Political Skill
    • Political skill: the ability to understand others at work and to use that knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal or organizational objectives. Political skill involves: social astuteness (good politicians are careful observers who are tuned in to others’ needs & motives), interpersonal influence (politically skilled have a convincing and persuasive interpersonal style but employ it flexibly to meet the needs of the situation), apparent sincerity (influence attempts will be seen as manipulative unless they are accompanied by sincerity)
    • Networking: establishing good relations with key organizational members and outsiders to accomplish one’s goals. It is an effective way to develop informal social contacts.
  • Machiavellianism – The Harder Side of Politics
    • Machiavellianism: a set of cynical beliefs about human nature, morality, and the permissibility of using various tactics to achieve one’s ends.  Machiavellianism is a stable personality trait.
    • High Machs are more likely to advocate the use of lying and deceit to achieve desired goals and to argue that morality can be compromised to fit the situation in question. High Machs assume that many people are excessively gullible and do not know what is best for themselves. High Machs are exceedingly practical mannered, assuming that the ends justify the means. High Macs also do not feel guilty. High Machs are able to accurately identify situations in which their favoured tactics will work.
  • Defensiveness—Reactive Politics
    • Reactive politics attempts to reduce threats to one’s own power by avoiding actions that do not suit one’s own political agenda or avoiding blame for events that might threaten one’s political capital. They use the following: stalling, overconforming (sticking to your job description), buck passing (having someone else take action to avoid damage to self)
    • Avoiding blame tactics: buffing (carefully documenting information showing that an appropriate course of action was followed), scapegoating (blaming others when things go wrong)

Ethics in Organizations

  • Ethics: systematic thinking about the moral consequences of decisions
  • Stakeholders: people inside or outside of an organization who have the potential to be affected by organizational decisions.
  • Causes of Unethical Behaviour
    • Gain: It is critical to recognize the role of temptation in unethical activity. The anticipation of healthy reinforcement for following an unethical course of action, especially if no punishment is expected, should promote unethical decisions
    • Role conflict: Many ethical dilemmas that occur in organizations are actually forms of role conflict (ch. 7) that get resolved in an unethical way. Consider ethical corporate social responsibility. An executive’s role as a custodian of the environment (do not pollute) might be at odds with his or her role as a community provider (do not close the plant that pollutes). A very common form of role conflict that provokes unethical behaviour occurs when our “bureaucratic” role as an organizational employee is at odds with our role as the member of a profession.
    • Competition: Stiff competition for scarce resources can stimulate unethical behaviour. This has been observed in both business game simulations and industry studies of illegal acts, in which trade offences, such as price fixing and monopoly violations, have been shown to increase with industry decline.
    • Personality: Business game simulations have shown that people with strong economic values  are more likely to behave unethically than those with weaker economic values
  • Whistle-blowing
    • Whistle-blowing: disclosure of illegitimate practices by a current or former organizational member to some person or organization that might be able to take action to correct these practises.
]]> http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/organizational-strategies2/feed/ 0 Social Influence in Organizations http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/social-influence-in-organizations/ http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/social-influence-in-organizations/#comments Thu, 03 Nov 2011 14:59:42 +0000 The Glaring Facts http://communicationsknowledge.wordpress.com/?p=456
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Organizational socialization

Social Influence in Organizations

  • Information Dependence & Effect Dependence
    • Information dependence: Reliance on others for information about how to think, feel, and act. The effects of social information can be very strong, often exerting as much or more influence over others as objective reality.
    • Effect dependence: Reliance on others due to their capacity to provide rewards and punishment. Occurs in two conditions: 1) groups frequently have a vested interest in how the individual thinks, feels, and acts because it impacts their ability to attain a goal; 2) the member frequently desires the approval of the group: circumstances that promote effect dependence.

Social Influence in Action

  • Motives for Social Conformity
    • Compliance: Conformity to a social norm prompted by the desire to acquire rewards or avoid punishment.
    • Identification: Conformity to a social norm prompted by perceptions that those who promote the norm are attractive or similar to oneself.
    • Internalization: Conformity to a social norm prompted by true acceptance of beliefs, values, and attitudes that underlie the norm.

Organizational Socialization

  • Socialization: the process by which people learn the norms and roles that are necessary to function in a group or organization.
    • Person-job fit: the match between an employee’s knowledge, skills, and abilities and the requirements of a job.
    • Person-organization fit: the match between an employee’s personal values and the values of an organization.

Stages of Socialization

  • Anticipatory socialization: A person becomes a member of a particular organization before being a part of it, preparation for an organization (i.e. preparing highschool students with the values of university students before highschool new grads become first year students @ university).
    • Encounter: Armed with some expectations about organizational life, the recruit encounters the day-to-day reality of this life.
    • Role management: The new member’s attention shifts to fine tuning and actively managing his or her role in the organization.
  • Unrealistic Expectations and the Psychological Contract
    • Unrealistic Expectations: Research indicates that people entering organizations hold many expectations that are inaccurate and often unrealistically high. As a result, once they enter an organization they experience a reality shock and their expectations are not met.
    • Psychological contract: Beliefs held by employees regarding the reciprocal obligations and premises between them and their organization (e.g. an employee might expect to receive bonuses and promotions in return for hard work and loyalty)

Methods of Organizational Socialization

  • Organizations that handle their own socialization are especially interested in maintaining the continuity and stability of job behaviours over a period of time.
  • Organizations that rely heavily on external socialization always supplement it with formal training and orientation or informal on-the-job training.
  • Methods of socialization can occur in the following ways:
    • Realistic Job Previews: the provision a balanced, realistic picture of the positive and negative aspects of a job to applicants
    • Employee orientation: orientation programs are designed to introduce new employees to their job, the people they will be working with, and the organization.
  • Socialization tactics: the manner in which organizations structure the early work experience of newcomers and individuals who are in transition from one role to another.
    • Collective (a number of new members are socialized as a group; sales & airliners) vs. Individual Tactics (socialization experiences that are tailor-made for each new member)
    • Formal (segregating newcomers from organizational members and providing them with formal learning experiences during the period of socialization) vs. Informal (reliance of on-the-job training) tactics
    • Fixed (there is a time frame to indicate when the socialization process ends and the newcomer assumes his/her new role) vs. Variable (no time frame to indicate when the socialization process ends and the newcomer assumes his/her role) tactics
    • Serial (a process in which newcomers are socialized by experienced members of an organization) vs. Disjunctive (a process where role models and experienced organization members do not groom new members or “show them the ropes”) tactics.
    • Investiture (affirming the incoming identity and attributes of new hires rather than denying and stripping them away) vs. Divestiture (refer to what is also known as debasement and hazing. Designed to strip new members of their old beliefs, values, and attitudes to get them to internalize new ones) tactics
    • Institutionalized (collective, formal, sequential, fixed, serial, and investiture tactics) vs. Individualized (individual, informal, random, variable, disjunctive, and divestiture tactics) tactics
  • Mentoring
    • Mentoring: an experienced or senior person in the organization who gives a junior person special attention, such as giving advice and creating opportunities to assist him/her during the early stages of his/her career.
    • Career functions of Mentoring
      • Sponsorship: the mentor might nominate the apprentice for advantageous transfers and promotions
      • Exposure & visibility: Mentor might provide opportunities to work with key people and see other areas of the organization
      • Coaching & feedback: Mentor might suggest work strategies and identify strengths and weaknesses in the apprentice’s performance.
      • Developmental assignments: challenging work assignments a mentor can provide will help develop key skills and knowledge that are crucial for career progress.
    • Psychosocial functions of mentoring (research efforts have documented the importance of having a mentor when starting one’s career and how it can influence career success)
      • Role modeling: provides a set of attitudes, values, and behaviours for the junior person to imitate.
      • Acceptance & confirmation: mentor can provide encouragement & support & help the apprentice gain self-confidence
      • Counselling: provides an opportunity to discuss personal concerns and anxieties concerning career prospects, work-family conflicts, etc…
    • Formal Mentoring Programs: Can organizations formally assign mentors to apprentices and achieve the career outcomes normally associated with more spontaneous, informal mentor-apprentice relationships? Answer is yes. Research has found that informal & formal mentor relations have a positive impact on the organization almost equally.
    • Women & mentors: The lack of mentors and role models is a major barrier for the career advancement of many women. There is a problem in the lack of experience many male mentors have in dealing with a woman in roles other than daughter, wife, or lover. Strategies from male mentors may have limited relevance to the female apprentice. Perhaps the greatest difficulty is associated with fears that their relationship will be perceived as involving sexual intimacy.
    • Race, Ethnicity & mentoring: limited racial and ethnic diversity at higher levels of organizations constrain the mentoring opportunities available to younger minority group employees.
  • Proactive Socialization: What Newcomers can do to socialize themselves
    • Proactive socialization: the process through which new comers play an active role in their own socialization through the use of a number of proactive socialization tactics.
      • General socialization (lunches), boss relationship building, networking, feedback-seeking, information-seeking, observation, behavioural self-management (self-goal setting, self-rewards & rehearsal), relationship building, job change negotiation, involvement in work-related activities, career-enhancing strategies, informal mentor relations
  • Organizational Identification: the extent to which an individual defines him/herself in terms of the organization and what it is perceived to represent

Organizational Culture

  • What is Organizational Culture?
    • Organizational Culture: the shared beliefs, values, and assumptions that exist in an organization. Culture represents a true “way of life”; tend to be fairly stable overtime b/c of its norms; can involve matters of internal or external issues to an organization; can have a strong impact on both organizational performance and member satisfaction
    • Subculture: smaller cultures that develop within a larger organizational culture that are based on differences in training, occupation, or departmental goals
  • The “Strong Culture” concept
    • Strong Culture: an organizational culture with intense and pervasive beliefs, values, and assumptions.
  • Assets of Strong Cultures
    • Coordination: In effective organizations, the right hand (e.g. finance) knows what the left hand (e.g. production) is doing. The overarching values and assumptions of strong cultures can facilitate such communication.
    • Conflict resolution: Despite arousing conflicts, sharing core values can be a powerful mechanism that helps to ultimately resolve conflicts.
    • Financial success: There is growing consensus that strong cultures contribute to financial success and other indicators of organizational effectiveness when the culture supports the mission, strategy, and the goals of the organization.
  • Liabilities of Strong Cultures
    • Resistance to Change: The strong consensus about common values and appropriate behaviour that makes for a strong culture can prove to be very resistant to change. This means that a strong culture can damage a firm’s ability to innovate.
    • Culture clash: Strong cultures can mix as badly as oil and water when a merger or acquisition pushes two of them together under the same corporate banner.
    • Pathology: Some strong cultures can threaten organizational effectiveness simply because the cultures are, in some sense, pathological. Such cultures may be based on beliefs, values, and assumptions that support infighting, secrecy, and paranoia, pursuits that hardly leave time for doing business.
  • Contributors to the Culture
    • Founder’s Role: It is remarkable how many cultures, especially strong cultures, reflect the values of an organization’s founder. Sometimes the culture begun by the founder can cause conflict when top management wishes to see an organization change directions.
    • Socialization: Strong cultures have strong socialization processes. Weak or fragmented cultures often feature haphazard selection and a nearly random series of job assignments that fail to present the new hire with a coherent set of experiences.
  • Diagnosing a Culture
    • Symbols: some executives are particularly skilled at using symbols consciously to reinforce cultural values.
    • Rituals: Observers have noted how rites, rituals, and ceremonies can convey the essence of a culture.
    • Stories: Stories about past organizational events and successes is a common aspect of culture. These stories, told repeatedly to successive generations of new employees, are evidently meant to communicate “how things work,” whether they are true, false, or a bit of both

Cool and Related Sites:

]]> http://www.theglaringfacts.com/psychology/organizational-behaviour/social-influence-in-organizations/feed/ 1 Workplace Canadianisms http://www.theglaringfacts.com/communications/canadian-television/workplace-canadianisms/ http://www.theglaringfacts.com/communications/canadian-television/workplace-canadianisms/#comments Wed, 02 Nov 2011 05:38:47 +0000 The Glaring Facts http://theglaringfacts.com/?p=1233 Jan 24, 2008 — Workplace Canadianisms

I work at a call center called NuCOMM International. It is bent on trying to rule the world by means of servicing huge clients such as “Comcast” and “Cogeco” and “Brighthouse” and The Devil. This workplace is marked by rows and rows of endless paths and zigzags of aisles leading to cubicles that make you want to commit suicide. This is how it serves The Devil. Beyond these aisles, clear distinctions are made between which obese person has a particular cubicle and someone who has another one. Obesity runs rampant and uncontrolled in this workplace, so if someone is ever to understand this culture, they are easily integrated if they are obese rather than if they are slim. Sadly, obesity is a workplace Canadianism here. Not that obesity isn’t enough of a problem already, snacking on Lays and other despicable brands such as CocaCola too is a problem since it supports Zionist extremism. These brand names are also a workplace Canadianism in that it supports the expansion of other empires.

Canadians are great at helping others and these brands allow them the ability to assist better. Before this starts to turn into a rant about a Jewish Trust Fund (a fund that seems to have an unlimited amount of money…), let’s get back to the ideas of workplace Canadianisms. This workplace is marked by a lot of signs of Canadian attributes. For example, there are a lot of pictures of money and beavers. I haven’t got a clue why beavers and money describe NuCOMM International the best, but I guess it works as a Canadianism here. Also, the Canadian flag is all over the place. It is supposed to mark a moment of remembrance, especially during Rememberance Day, of course. Also, there seems to be this precarious association between business and trophies. For NuCOMM, their trophies are in the form of frames because NuCOMM is cheap. These trophies have a lot of Canadian leafs.

Furthermore, there are pictures of the Toronto Maple Leafs. People constantly wear the Leafs hats and jerseys. Because I hate the Leafs, I always wear Ottawa hats and make them furious of me. The rivalry is really unnecessary between these two hockey teams. Ottawa is the capital city, Toronto isn’t! Why are Torontonians crying about it like children who just came out of a mental daycare institution? And, if you’re a Toronto fan, remember that Toronto’s last Stanley Cup victory was in 1967—it’s been like 40 years now and they still haven’t won. At the end of the day, the Ottawa Senator jersey looks much better.

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