US Association of National Advertisers released a revised edition of a specific hierarchical framework in 1995 called DAGMAR (Dutka, 1995). An acronym for:

Defining – Advertising – Goals for – Measured – Advertising – Results

DAGMAR Advertising Approach

Advertising can yield nine different effects that are hierarchically orderer:

1. Category need
2. Brand awareness
3. Brand knowledge/comprehension
4. Brand attitude
5. Brand purchase intention
6. Purchase facilitation
7. Purchase
8. Satisfaction
9. Brand loyalty

DAGMAR as the same problem its forerunners had:

there is no convincing evidence that advertising affects the consumer in the sequence posited by the model. All models discussed essentially assume a passive consumer whose primary source of influence is advertising.

Weilbacher (2001) has summarized a series of problems associated with these models:

1. They are only concerned with the effects of advertising as discrete media messages, whereas in reality, effects often come about in interaction with various other marketing factors (including product features, distribution factors, and pricing decisions)
2. Represent a simplistic view of human behaviour and response processes, with advertising as the stimulus and overt consumer behaviour as the ultimate response without any regard for underlying and moderating conditions.
3. These models are inflexible, since they assume that all ads have the same specific effects
4. The models that relate specific effects with ways to measure them (i.e. DAGMAR) suggest that the postulated sequence of effects is valid, since its constitent components can be measured.

9 Step Advertising Strategy – DAGMAR is a post from: The Glaring Facts

An organization of volunteers and paid professionals who work together to achieve shared political goals. The defining characteristic of a political party—as distinct from an interest group—is that it nominates candidates for election to public office. For many parties, the primary goal is to win votes and thus to elect as many of their candidates as possible. Other parties are more concerned with advocacy of particular ideas and policies.

Gunther Diamond:

1. Party structure – the size of the membership, the extent and intensity of its organization, and the locus of effective power
2. Party program – the ideology or subculture that spawned the party, and the emphasis given to the party’s stated principles in its electoral appeals; and
3. Party strength – the strength of the party’s attachment to (or rejection of) the existing democratic system, and the level of its tolerance toward other ideologies or subcultures

“In all sustainable democracies the party system must be deeply and durably entrenched in specific substructures of the specific society. Parties link the institutions of government to the elements of civil society”

How is a Political Party organized?

At its founding, a political party may consist of self-appointed leader and a handful of committed members.

If it is to survive for more than a few years, especially in a competitive electoral environment, the party must establish some kind of stable organizational structure. The specific form a party takes will depend, in large measure, on the political system in which it operates.

What does a political party do?

How Politics Can Eventually Become

IDEA believe that newly democratizing states need to establish strong political parties if they are to remain free and stable over the long-term. The primary reason is that parties “are the only institutions that carry out all [the] functions which are necessary for the democratic process.” These functions include:

• Mediating between a pluralistic society and its political institutions of government;
• Organizing political campaigns in order to mobilize voters to participate in an election; and
• Recruiting political personnel by selecting and nominating candidates who stand for public office in an election

Leadership selection:

1. A party leader must be selected according to a clear and consistent set of rules, to avoid potentially divisive conflicts over the fairness of the process.
2. The choice of leader is crucial to the party for four reasons:
3. The leader is the public face of the party
4. The leader has enormous influence over party policy
5. The leader is the party’s general in the daily legislative battle
6. The leader is ultimately responsible for keeping the party organization in a state of election readiness.
7. The party leader must be an excellent communicator

Candidate Nomination:

In general, parties look for strong candidates: men and (increasingly) women with professional qualifications, high public profiles, good communications kills, and clean personal reputations.

Election Campaigns:

The third function o fparties is the orchestration of election campaigns. The nature of party campaigns has changed dramatically in the past half-century, largely because of the growing importance of television in national politics.

In principle, party campaigns provide important cues to voters. Party leaders try to win over the public, selling their platforms on the nightly news and through paid advertising.

Parties appear to be losing their capacity ot mobilize voters. Turnout levels in Western democracies have fallen sharply in recent elections, although voters in new democracies usually embrace the franchise with enthusiasm. The decline in electoral participation is particularly marked in countries where weakly organized parties have lost their connections with the electorate—in a word, with dominant electoratist parties.

The role of a political party in government

The structure of political parties are shaped by the political institutions within which they operate. More narrowly, the way in which governing parties exercise power are affected by three institutional factors:

• The number of parties in the cabinet
• The number of parties in a given cabinet is determined by the voting patterns in each national electorate.
• The relationship between the legislative and executive branches

The behaviour of governing parties is directly affected by the relationship between the legislative and the executive. Party structures are looser and less cohesive in congressional systems than they are in British-style parliamentary systems.

The extent to which that particular government is constrained by external forces, including constitutional rules and globalization

The policy choices of governing parties are constrained by external factors, including fiscal conditions, global forces, and domestic constitutions.

Parties and Public policy

Parties rely for policy innovation on interest groups, think-tanks, public servants, and other external forces.

PARTY SYSTEMS: How a political party interacts with others:

Party System

The sum total of the relevant parties in any given country at any one time. A handy criterion of relevance is the distinction between parties thar are represented in parliament and those that are not. By this measure, there are presently four relevant parties in the Canadian party system: CPC, the Bloc, Liberal Party, and the NDP. These parties within a particular party system compete with each other for scarce resources, particularly money and votes. The word system refers to a set of distinct but interrelated objects. When an individual party changes in some way—by appealing to a new group of voters or by altering its internal structures—the change affects all the other parties in the system. This helps to explain the growing preponderance of an electoralist political party in democratic states.

What is a Political Party? is a post from: The Glaring Facts

Media Advertising and Marketing is a post from: The Glaring Facts

Characteristics of Fear Appeals

Adverts point out that the product would protect individuals against some unpleasant health impairment.

Fear-arousing communications mostly consist of two parts:

1. A fear appeal warning individuals of some health threat
2. An action recommendation that advises individuals about how to protect themselves against this threat.

Fear-arousing communication has initially been guided by the drive-reduction model of fear appeals (Janis & Feshbach, 1953). This model assumes that individuals who are informed of an impending health threat, will be motivated to search for responses to reduce the threat. The model predicts that higher fear should result in more persuasion, but only if the recommended action is perceived as effective in averting danger.

Evolution of the Fear Appeal

Due to inconsistent empirical evidence with the drive model, Leventhal (1970) introduced a more cognitive theory – the ‘parallel response model’, which no longer assumed that emotional arousal was a necessary antecedent of the adaptation to danger.

In the PRM, a threat is cognitively evaluated and this appraisal can give rise to two parallel or independent responses, namely danger control and fear control:

1. Danger control involves the decision to act as well as actions taken to reduce the danger
2. Fear control involves actions taken to control emotional responses (e.e. use of tranquilizers or alcohol) as well as strategies to reduce fear (e.g. defensive avoidance)

Witte (1992) later extended the PRM by adding the plausible assumption that the perceived efficacy of the recommended response determines whether individuals engage mainly in danger or in fear control.

Issues with the Fear Appeal

There is a problem with all these models:

1. There is no empirical evidence for the predicted interaction between threat and response efficacy (De Hoog, Stroebe & de Wit, 2007; Witte & Allen, 2000).
2. They make no predictions about these processes of information processing

The important determinants of intensity of processing are the perceived severity of a health threat and personal vulnerability (i.e. personal relevance of the threat). If both severity and vulnerability are low, individuals are unlikely to invest much effort into processing information about this threat.

Even at low severity, individuals who feel vulnerable will begin to pay some attention and process information about the risk systematically, though at low intensity.

If the arguments in the appeal are strong and persuasive, individuals may not succeed in minimizing the threat. Their main hope now is that the recommended action will really protect them against the impending risk to their health.

A meta-analysis of 95 published studies of the efficacy of fear appeals supported most of the predictions of the stage model (De Hoog et a., 2007).

As predictd, the attitudes towards the health recommendation were only affected by severity of the health threat and argument quality but not by personal vulnerability.

Both vulnerability and severity influenced intention to perform a protective ation and even actual behaviour and these effects were not moderated by the efficacy of the recommended  protective action.

It made no difference if the health risk information was accompanied by pictorial material. Adding pictures of diseased lungs to the health warning on cigarette packs is unlikely to increase the efficacy of these messages.

Examples of Fear Appeals

How to use a Fear Appeal is a post from: The Glaring Facts

By now you may have heard about a certain wedding in London this Friday. I certainly wasn’t going to get up at three or four in the morning (Toronto time) for anything, much less watch television. I caught some of the highlights of the event, just to gauge the amount of hype. While I do wish William and Kate well on their big day, people must know this: the media overkill is dangerous.

The Royal Wedding Overkill

Firstly, I have never seen such elaborate detail in any story ever. If only they could put that much effort in the gruesome affair in Libya, or the uprisings in Syria and Yemen. The economy, despite trumped-up claims of progress, is still in trouble. Even here in Canada, the upcoming national election on Monday takes a back seat to all the glamour across the pond. After all, these are the issues that will truly shape our world. Yet, we remain lost in the delusion of fantasy long enough for these issues to remain afterthoughts.

Identifying the “Commoners”

Secondly, I couldn’t help but notice that of all the “commoners” interviewed watching the wedding, not one of them was a person of colour. This includes the locals as well as people flying in from countries like Canada and Australia. The aforementioned countries do have the Commonwealth connection (or as I call it, “the British Empire Part Two”), but so do nations such as Nigeria and Guyana. Where were they on this fine morning? This speaks volumes about the continuous presence of white Euro-centric traditionalism that this event promotes.

Monarchy or Democracy, Prince William?

Which brings me to my final point about the irony of glorifying monarchy within democracy. Whereas monarchy places emphasis upon one head ruling over all, democracy places power in the hands of the people. Why the polar opposites are being placed together as if they can co-exist is beyond me. The legacy of colonialism, greed and bloodshed has clearly not gone away. For that we can thank the media for their ignorance, and for the people that buy into it all. Plus ça change, I guess…

The Royal Wedding Buzz

Unorganized Priority in the Royal Wedding is a post from: The Glaring Facts

Media Marketing Strategies is a post from: The Glaring Facts

• the extent of thinking versus feeling
• the extent of consumer involvement (low vs. high)

FCB Grid

Overview of the FCB Grid:

Each represents a combination of the extent of consumer thought and involvement. Brands & Products can be placed in one of the four cells based on the reasons behind its selection – emotional or for its functional benefits. Some products are more personally relevant to the consumer than others – product involvement will consequently vary

Analyzing the Quadrants of the FCB Grid

Each quadrant has a different sequence including the components ‘think’, ‘feel’ and ‘do’, that is assumed to account for the consumer decision-making process and the processing of advertisements about these products.

The quadrant of low-involvement/thinking typically includes household products such as detergent, toilet paper, and simple food items. Decision making proceeds along a do-think-feel hierarchy: consumers buy the brand without any mentionable cognitive or affective process preceding it (for example spurred by the simple observation that their household has ran out of the product).

By using the brand, individuals learn about its attributes. The evaluation of the usage experience may produce an attitude (which in the grid is equated with the ‘feel’ component).

The quadrant low-involvement/feeling includes products that may be regarded as “life’s little pleasures” (DePelsmacker et al., 2001), such as candy, soft drink, ice cream, etc… They are bought primarily for hedonic reasons, and hence, affective considerations weigh more heavily than ognitive considerations. Information about these products requires little cognitive effort and decision-making proceeds along a do-fell-think hierarchy: after purchase, the product is consumed eliciting an affective experience, which may be followed by learning about the product’s attributes.

The quadrant of high involvement/thinking includes products that are associated with considerable (financial) risk such as loans, houses, and cars.

Decision-making about the product attributes and performance through careful processing of advertising and other sources of information, then develops an attitude (again, the ‘feel’ refers to an evaluation here) and subsequently acts in accordance with that attitude.

High involvement/feeling quadrant is involved with a feel-think-do sequence and includes such products as expensive jewellery, parfume and fashion (where ‘feel’ refers in part to a true affective, sensory experience—as with parfume—and in part to an evaluation).

What to Expect to Develop Consumer Product Relationships

In addition, the role of brand awareness as a necessary precursor for brand attitudes, both at the point of purchase (where a consumer has to recognize the brand) and prior to purchase (where a consumer needs to recall the brand).

Involvement in this model is defined as the extent of risk perceived by the typical target audience member (although the types of risk remains unspecified).

These researchers refer to a positive and negative purchase motivations, which are reminiscent of goal-approach and avoidance motivations.

Positive motivations – “transformational motivations” –include: sensory gratification, intellectual stimulation, and social approval.

How to Develop Consumer-Product Relationships is a post from: The Glaring Facts

Media are actively engaged in creating tastes and producing demand.

• Media have to cultivate a need for products—you likely won’t see an ad for Sony Televisions during a program for Global Warming. You will, however, during a sports game with emphasis on HD viewing. Also think of the types of trailers you see when you go and watch a film on theatres or on DVD.
• Mass media and mass consumption go hand and hand.
• Media not only produce programs, but attract audiences as commodities to sell to advertisers (says Political Economist Dallas Smythe).—McAllister (from the reading) is influenced by this approach. The idea that media generates a pro-capitalist atmosphere.

Advertising and the ‘audience commodity’

• Capitalism depends on generating demand. People need to buy your product!
• Advertising creates ‘problems’ which can be solved by consumption of products (E.g. a problem for us is global warming and the hole in the o-zone layer. So how do we solve that problem? Simple, go out and by sunscreen to prevent harmful exposure to the sun; go out and buy energy efficient air conditioners, florescent lighting, and other products that are ‘environmentally friendly.’ basically, things we can solve buy shopping)
• Audiences work for advertisers in spare time learning about shopping for products (E.g. I would do my own research for the best pimple removers to buy something for my sister; research for the best laptop. Basically, I spend a lot of time learning about products and why I need them).
• Commercial audience research sells the audience commodity to advertisers (We voluntarily educate ourselves to consumer—e.g. cooking shows).

High initial production cost, low reproduction cost

• (side note) People aged 13-24 spend on average 48 hours a week consuming media. This number was the same in 1981 and in 2001. The reason for that is because with the internet, you often use it and watch TV at the same time.
• (side note) Proprietary data: (Neilson) ratings for television consumption collect first hand and sold to media companies.
• Media products are talent goods, experience goods, and information goods.
• You can’t assume consumers will know about your product (talent), need to take risks (experience) and need to inform buyers (information)
• Production cost to create Titanic was $200 million. Once the film goes into the cinema, it gets distributed to consumers; later it gets distributed by DVD (small costs), etc.
• High cost of production & high risk
• Ease of digital reproduction & distribution (YouTube, etc)
• “Scale economies in media production are determined by massive consumption, not by massive production” (Angel Arese Reca, 2006). The more we consume of that particular product, the better economies of scale are.

Semi-public goods or ‘joint consumption’

• (side note) health care is a public good because we all need it. Defence/security is another public good because we all need it. Education is a public good, everyone needs it and everyone gets it.
• Media products, on the other hand, are not entirely public goods. There is a private aspect to them.
• Media as a public good—widely available, shared access, social goals
• Print, radio and TV (ad supported programming) are ‘free’ or low cost to consumers.
• Consumer media products (music, film) can be easily shared & redistributed (Can lend to a friend, can download from the net, etc…)
• We think of media products as shared goods, because they are supported by advertisers, available in multiple forms and channels. They’re also widely available and easily accessible.

Audience maximization, overcoming risks to reach markets

• Media need to be managed so that it reaches as wide an audience as possible
• Rise of marketing, promotion, and branding (McAllister) helps to overcome spatial separation (E.g. huge promotional budgets).
• Competition in teen magazine market lead to changes in format, content and quality of product or ‘tabloidization’ (Nice article)
• Strategies: repertoires, formats, genres and star talent, popular or critical quality, marketing and branding –> this are things to focus on for media products on the media log assignment.

Repertoires: a list arranging different products; a collection or catalogue of different things—the company producing the product and what else they have to sell

• Harry Potter films—they offer more than just one, but 4 different movies. Harry Potter films together have now earned 4.47 billion.
• Warner Brothers have had many successes, but have also released some horrible films.
• The accumulation of more than one type of product, in the event that some are unsuccessful, unprofitable ventures. WB has many films a year in case some of the films suck; they still have others to rely on in boosting their revenue.

Formats

• Genre. In newsprint a paper can be quality (Globe and Mail) or tabloid or filth (Toronto Sun). With television, there are many specialty channels now—Cooking Channel, Golf Channel (Film genres would include Horror, Sci-Fi. Etc).

Star talent

• Cinema and television rely on bankable stars to bring audiences to their products (Michael Moore was once unknown, now he’s a sure sale).
• Some stars choose bid budget pictures because they are assured of high promotion (E.g. in Harry Potter, strategic combination of unknown child actors and ‘star power’).
• Adults get something from the stars, the kids just come because it’s Harry Potter

Quality

Three standards of quality that are applied simultaneously:

Objective quality defined by media produces and professionals based on quantitative audience measure

• Grading, how often music gets played in the media, number of sales
• Ratings, box office revenue, chart position of a song, measuring demographic, etc

Subjective quality, both audience interest and critical tastes

• What others think of it—reviews, fan sites—do some research on audience interest. Check out the ratings for it, go to tv.com and look at audience ratings and number of ratings. Evidently, the more people submitting their votes, the more people care enough to voice their opinion online.
• Audience might just buy it randomly or for obscure reasons. Hard to tell exactly what subjective qualities are. Could be something that was read in a journal or review

Social and cultural qualities to the product, ability to meet the public goals

• What are the public goals of the media product? Creating people’s awareness about social issues, ethnicity and gender and race issues.
• Are they trash? Like teen magazines?

Advertising and the Audience is a post from: The Glaring Facts

• We should not reduce these two approaches to mutually exclusive focus on institutions (political economy) and interpretation of texts (cultural studies)—in a way that doesn’t leave out everything that has to do with production.
  • We need both sets of tools!
  • Cultural studies bring new analyses of power representation & identity
  • Contrasting epistemology (how we know what we know): political economy (we are shaped by certain factors, such as ethnicity)/realism/materialism & cultural studies (we know what we know because society influenced us to see things in a certain way)/constructivism/idealism

Habermas and the bourgeois public sphere (no actual reading on Habermas, just background info for discussion)

• There wasn’t always a ‘public’ for people to participate in. How did they emerge?
• Public sphere—we use this term to associate the rise of the middle class (bourgeois)
• There is a positive and public role for the media in society, not entirely taken over by commodity.
• Conception of ‘the public’, not as an abstract principle, but as culturally specific social formation.
• 18^th century European public: open debate and exchange of views without threat of domination—through public discussion!

The (ideal) bourgeois public sphere

• Anyone can be a part of it. Didn’t have to be part of the elite, a judge, high ranking officer, etc.
  • Disregard for social and economic status
• Debate on areas of political, economic, and social life never previously questioned
• Inclusivity: spokespersons for a much larger public—they spoke for everyone. There weren’t ways of keeping people out because everyone who wanted to participate could participate.
• New forms of publication, mainly the periodical and the newspaper—gradually the rise of the digital stream.

Critique of Habermas and revisions of his theory

• John Thompson:
  • ideal public was in practice quite exclusive
    • There were some times of publics that he didn’t look at (the ones outside the bourgeois.)
    • People who weren’t literate couldn’t participate
• Public sphere depended on the concurrent creation of a private and domestic sphere
• Public dichotomy: gender divide in private/public communication
• Is the decline of the public sphere happening? Is the mass media limiting public debate?
• Public sphere is not so much ‘feudalized’ (controlled by personality—celebrities and other crap) like Habermas said, but rather globalized (allowing more public input)

Public sphere as theory of democracy

• Habermas assumes that everyone who participates in the public sphere will treat other people’s views rationally and decide which is the best view for political or social ends.
• ‘Theory of communicative action:’ communication depends on agreement about terms of dialogue.
• Critics have said that it’s hard to base a theory on the premise of democracy on the belief that people will always act rationally—sometimes we have emotions (i.e. Fox news and their devilish emotions)
• Habermas doesn’t account for the residues of the irrational and unconscious
• So what is the role of the media in the public sphere?

Mass media and the public sphere

• Early publics still relied on oral dialogue and face to face communication
• Mass mediated communication is one-wary communicationàit doesn’t always result in generating discussions
• Media do not create a public through dialogue, but through participation as audiences and spectators—we have a more passive role
• Privatized consumption of media in the home has changed the nature of the public sphere

The public sphere and public broadcasting

• Power and influence of commercial media grows in the face of cutbacks to public media
  • The more cutbacks to public media, the less room there is for debate
• Re-examine public broadcasting and how it can be maintained
  • E.g. a lot of people are critical of CBC because only certain types of people watch it, certain types of people work there…
• Public broadcasting is designed to be insulated from state control, but is still accountable. Public or audience should be defined in terms of political relations rather than economic
• Conclusions: political and economic are 2 different ways

Decline of the public sphere, commercialism, neoliberalism

• End of twentieth century political changes, including the fall of communism
• Deregulation of media encourages rapid consolidation and convergence
  • Deregulation of media promoted economic view of media—industries are thriving from convergence
• Public sphere as rational debate about ‘foundational truths
• Or is the public sphere a kind of intersubjective dialogue about relative truths and social values. (read through this section in the article, number 2?)

Public Sphere & Political Economy of Media is a post from: The Glaring Facts

• Origins
  • Stems from neoclassical economics, which focuses on maximizing satisfaction
  • Mainstream cultural economics fails to address several issues of power
    • It is completely uninterested in the relationships between economic organizations and issues of textual meaning.

• An important tradition looks at the way that the impact of media has transformed political communication. This puts strong emphasis on the dangers for a society of the way that democratic processes are increasingly run via the broadcast and press media. Most people in society get their political knowledge from the mass media (usually television)
  • My personal note: audiences are passive! The media can generate political issues if needed by emphasizing certain news. E.g. the issue of hijabs while voting—it’s not really an issue.
• There is evident concern with how the cultural industries affect democratic processes and public life.
  • Structured forms of inequality and power are downplayed; different interest groups fight for their interests (e.g. the Israeli lobby)

Political economy approaches have a great deal more to offer than cultural economies in terms of analysing power in relation to cultural production.

• Political economy places emphasis on ethical and normative questions

• Some writers use the term critical political economy –> the concern of the increasing role of private businesses in cultural production. Such approaches are heavily critical of media and cultural corporations
  • These approaches are holistic, and see the economy as interrelated with political, social and cultural life
  • They’re historical, and pay close attention to long-term changes in the role of state, corporations and media in the culture
  • They’re concerned with the balance between private enterprise and public intervention
  • They engage with basic moral questions of justice, equity and the public good

Critical political economy approaches see the fact that culture is produced and consumed under capitalism as a fundamental issue in explaining inequalities of power, prestige and profit. It Examines the extent to which the cultural industries serve the interests of the wealthy and powerful.

What is political economy?

• Two particular strands of North American and European political economy approaches
• Schiller-McChesney tradition
  • Emphasizes strategic uses of power.
  • Liberal-pluralist communication studies—primary concern is with information media
• Cultural industries approach
  • Emphasis on problems and contradictions, on the partial and incomplete process of commodifying culture, provides a more accurate picture of cultural production
  • Combines interest in the macro level of relations between general economy and cultural industries (which is an important concern for the other tradition) with an analysis of what distinguishes industrial cultural production from other forms of industrial production (which is not an important concern for the other tradition).
  • Focuses on the supply side (on cultural production and circulation and their social and political contexts), but does not ignore the activity of audiences.
    • Production and consumption are not seen as separate entities, but as different moments in a single process.
    • The connections and tensions between production and consumption are more or less ignored in the other tradition.
  • Puts symbol creators (those responsible for creative input in texts, such as writers, directors, producers, performers…) in issues of market structure and how it affects the organization of cultural production (whereas the other tradition does not)
  • A more successful approach in the difficult task of addressing both information and entertainment
  • There is a lack of attention to textual analysis and meaning amongst writers drawn to political economy approaches to culture.

Cultural studies is a diverse field. It attempts to examine and rethink culture by considering its relationship to social power.

• Cultural studies argue that ordinary, everyday culture needs to be taken seriously.
• Cultural studies has provided considerable refinement of what we might mean by that difficult term culture.
• Cultural studies has raised vital political questions about ‘who speaks?’, about who has the authority to make pronouncements on culture.
• Cultural studies has fore fronted issues of textuality, subjectivity, identity, discourse and pleasure in relation to culture.
  • Subjectivity and identity, and the often irrational and unconscious processes by which we become who we are.

Political economy versus cultural studies is neither an accurate nor useful way to characterize approaches to the media and popular culture

Production versus consumption

• Political economy is often used as a shorthand term for ‘studies of production’
• Both these approaches treat entertainment as a mere distraction/diversion from creating a rational, participatory citizen.

Questions of epistemology

• Political economy writers tend towards realism; cultural studies writers towards constructivist and subjectivist epistemological paths.

Cultural Approaches to Economy and the Media is a post from: The Glaring Facts